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You have made your case very well, but allow me to add something more: Although Nephi might just as well have been hunting small antelope or gazelle, your ibex goat is even better since it fits an astrological sequence which I have been examining for some time, which includes the bright star Capella “Small Goat.” That astrological imprint is apparent in both the prophetic Blessing of Jacob (Gen 49) and the parallel Blessing of Moses (Deut 33) on the Twelve Tribes, in proper zodiacal sequence.
We can already see that Patriarch Jacob and his favored son Joseph are paralleled in manifold ways by Patriarch Lehi and his son Nephi, as befits a Manassite (Josephite) document like the Book of Mormon. However, it requires an accurate translation of the biblical text:
The long Blessing upon Joseph is key (Gen 49:22-26), including broken bows (49:24 both Ephraim Speiser and the New Jerusalem Bible reading with the LXX Greek synetribē “were broken” = likely Hebrew Vorlage *wtšbr, which is also found in an Aramaic Sefire Inscription תשבר). Thus including Nephi’s and his brothers’ failed bows (1 Nephi 16:18-21).
The focus of that sequence is ostensibly with God himself in Gen 49:24 (Deut 33:17), the “Bull of Jacob,” which not only fits our well-known Taurus the Bull constellation, but also ancient Sumerian mul-Gud-an-na “Bull of Heaven.” Lehi “Jaw, Cheek,” is equivalent to the Jaw of that Bull (Sumerian mul-Is-le10 “Bull-Jaw” = the Hyades), which stands for the Bull himself by synecdoche. Then comes the “Shepherd”/”Rock of Israel,” doing double-duty again for God himself (Sumerian mul-Sipad-zid-an-na “Shepherd of Heaven,” equivalent to our Orion the Hunter) and for Joseph & Nephi, since each from that point on wields the Shepherd’s Crook of authority (Sumerian gamlum, which is also a Hunter’s Crook and a priestly crook) over his brethren.
Next in sequence is Gen 49:25 (Deut 33:17) Shadday “Twin Breasts,” equivalent to Joseph’s twins Ephraim & Manasseh (Sumerian Maš₂-tab-ba-gal), which we have as our Gemini the Twins. Between Taurus and Gemini is the constellation Auriga, with Capella “Small Goat” its brightest star.
That this is not all is clear from tribal Issachar “Hireling” in Gen 49:14-15 (Deut 33:18), which parallels Sumerian mul-Lu2-ḫuŋ-ŋa2 “Hireling,” which we nowadays designate as Aries the Ram. I will be saying more about this elsewhere soon.
So many good points.
I appreciate your careful reading of the text. That shift from “my father’s tent” to “our tents” is huge. Your citation of Mosiah is from possibly a biased narrative but isn’t it curious they specify the timing in the wilderness? The past tenses you brought up were key. Many legal scholars suggest know there was a blurred (but present) separation of religion and state in the First Temple Period. I sense you depict Nephi as neither a church or legal leader (before Lehi’s death) rather, he is somehow unofficial but definitely in charge. When Nephi talks of leadership he seems to state he is not a King. I wonder how Nephi would characterize his leadership.
In my profession, they tell us that young leaders use as their power enthusiasm and energy. As one becomes a senior leader, actual capability has to be demonstrated. You rightly bring up that the party was probably amazed at Nephi’s skill… Apparently a skill no one else had. As a matter of fact, Nephi had so many abilities you have to wonder if everybody asked him what to do. Perhaps that is why he was grieved he must explain one should pray always (presumably they were just asking Nephi what to do, I know I would).
The “bronze” vs “steel” discussion is huge. Both can be stronger than iron so either is feasible. But we know from archaeology they did have steel around Jerusalem at that time. In the article “Early Evidence for Steelmaking in the Judaic Sources” it Appears the Jews do not have a word for steel. Instead, they call it “iron that breaks iron” Or “iron from the north”, or “worked iron.” Remember that steel is just iron with optimally 2% carbon. So the different between iron and steel could be viewed as a spectrum. The “worked iron” referenced in the Bible is directed at lands north of Israel. And of course, “iron from the north” suggests the people import it and are not immensely familiar with it. Perhaps that is why they don’t actually have a word for it (that we know of).
In contrast, Nephi is associated with the north (see article on naming of River Sidon), grading steel, AND producing steel and weapons. If that is true, it suggests Nephi is intimately familiar with state-of-the-art warfare technology (most of Babylon’s weapons aren’t even steel). Perhaps this is why Nephi initially thinks Jerusalem will not fall? I have to say Nephi typically gives credit to the Lord. But he does NOT ask how to make tools (he asks where to get the ore). He also doesn’t ask how to make a bow… he asks where to hunt. Where did he get this likely highly-guarded knowledge? Noel Reynolds states many scribes are familiar with metal work. He points out many scribes have a second profession. That accounts for a part. One cannot merely attribute Nephi’s skill in metal solely to being a scribe. Steel (and most bronze) are too hard to write on. So Nephi appears to have access to exclusive knowledge and training about steel.
I read Nephi’s wealth as a list… “gold and silver and precious things” What is more precious than gold and silver? Steel is often garbage to us but it would likely be precious to Nephi. (Similar to builders placing aluminum on the Washington monument). Truly, given its strength and scarcity steel would be considered precious.
I see you describing a person who is finally seen for what he is in the Camp of the Broken Bow. He’s no longer a viewed as a zealous follower, but rather a person of world-class training and abilities. He’s still a follower, of course, as you said.
I have to point out that supporting Nephi’s secular knowledge Is that Cleon Skousen claims “Sam” Is not short for Samuel but rather it is the Egyptian version of “Shem.” What would you typically think of a family that is living in Israel and naming their sons Egyptian names? Also, Jacob seems to be using Nephi’s name as an Egyptian word when he says there will be “first captain, second captain, third captain and so forth…” Further, in the autobiographical book, with a superscription most similar to First Nephi (Tobit) we read almost immediately that Tobit kept the commandments and his mother the law of Moses since his youth. In comparison Nephi’s parents are “goodly.” I personally put Lehi in the same category as Amulek. I could go on but I think Nephi is a low-key secular person in exclusive circles. Nothing against Nephi or Lehi, presumably those circles were more “spiritual” than many church circles. Also, it’s much harder to leave Jerusalem when you are at the cutting edge of everything.
It seems after the Camp of the Broken Bow Nephi is seen for who he is (by his family). Perhaps he had not been flashy with his weapons knowledge. Your writing suggests Nephi is the most obvious choice for leader early on. Laman and Lemuel had years to adapt to the obvious choice. Thank you for your writing which is clearly stimulating.
I appreciate your kind words and your insights that add to my thesis.
Thank you for reading my paper so closely. Your first question is that Nephi specifically tells us that his bow “was made of steel” (1 Nephi 16:18). I know next to nothing about metallurgy, so I initially took that his statement as a given as, apparently, do you. In finding out more about it, however, I read the comments of the eminent scholar, William Hamblin, who wrote an entire chapter on “The Bow and Arrow in the Book of Mormon” (in his book with Stephen Ricks entitled Warfare in the Book of Mormon). Hamblin made the strong statement I quoted on page 221 of my paper. Warren Aston, the foremost expert on the trip through Arabia, similarly asserted that the translation of steel “should probably be translated as bows of bronze” (see p. 221). Scripture Central asserts that “the word translated ‘steel’ in these passages is the Hebrew nhwsh which actually means ‘bronze’ and is rendered that way in more recent translations [of the OT]. The King James translation as steel reflects an older, broader range of meaning which included … hardened copper alloys such as bronze” (see knowhy/why-did-nephis-fine-steel-bow-break — the “knowhy” is worth reading in its entirety). The “Father” of modern Book of Mormon scholarship, Hugh Nibley, makes the strong declaration quoted on p. 221. In fact, your own later comment that the word, “bronze” was not in use in America ironically supports, rather than repudiates, the idea that Nephi’s bow was likely reinforced by a metal for which Joseph Smith did not have a name but was probably not solid steel.
Your second point is the “place of Nephi is never referred to as the city of Nephi” in the text. That’s true. But it is never referred to as “the place of Nephi” (which you call it) either. Nephi tells us that “my people would that we should call the name of the place, Nephi; wherefore, we did call it Nephi” (2 Nephi 5:8). But was it a city? Certainly not – at least as we think of cities. The population that followed Nephi to this “place” was a few dozen people (including children) …if that. Nephi even names the heads of households who went with him (v.6). It would only have been more people if there had been converted indigenous peoples who joined them. Either way, the “place” was, at best, a village or a settlement. Nevertheless, over time they built buildings (v. 15) including even a temple (“and the workmanship thereof was exceedingly fine” v.16). Did Nephi’s followers have a name for this “place”? One would assume so. The people “did take upon them to call themselves the people of Nephi” (v. 9; see also Jacob 1:2), they wanted Nephi to be their king (v.18), and later kings were called “Nephi” (Jacob 1:10). It seems reasonable that they would call their village (city) by his name. Mormon even tells us that “it was the custom of the people of Nephi to call their lands, and their cities, and their villages, yea, even all their small villages, after the name of him who first possessed them” (Alma 8:7). The difficulty that you have with the identification of the “city of Nephi” is that “it should not be confused with the city of Lehi-Nephi about 400 years later.” Okay…. The town I live in originally had the same name as another town in the same state, so it was renamed to avoid such confusion. 400 years is a long time, so I have no problem with Nephi’s “place” having a similar name to a much later “place.” Note also that you are assuming that the two “cities of Nephi” were different locations, but they could even have been the same “place.” I don’t think we know whether the locations were the same or different. Despite all this, I yield to your point that the village of Nephi is never called the “city of Nephi” in the Book of Mormon, even though that was likely what they called it. A parallel is that the “small plates” and “large” plates of Nephi are never called that in the Book of Mormon, but we all refer to them with those names.
Actually, the phrase “small plates” does occur at Jacob 1:1.
As to “steel” composing both the Sword of Laban and Nephi’s bow, actual steel is probably the most likely meaning: A smith need only produce an iron bloom in order to create carbon-steel through repeated heating, beating, and quenching, and that technology was readily available in Nephi’s day, and had been for centuries, with iron ore being extracted from Manassite territory in Gilead (in the Transjordanian highlands). Indeed, David S, a Latter-day Saint metallurgical engineer, objected that he had “never had a problem with the steel bow of Nephi. Everything he says about it seems entirely plausible.” He sees no problem at all in making steel (iron with .1 to 1.8 % carbon) using technology available to Nephi. One could take high grade ore (or meteoric iron), heat and soften it in a very hot fire (inside a clay oven with bellows, which Nephi had), with charcoal (for case hardening), through the bloom process, and obtain a couple of “springs” of steel, which would then be connected together at the grip. Such a bow would require perhaps an 80 – 100 pound pull, while a common wooden bow has a pull of 20 – 30 pounds. http://bycommonconsent.com/2006/02/20/on-nephis-steel-bow/ .
One should consider, by the way, that the grip could be the weak-point at which a break might occur, although a more catastrophic break would be one of the steel components itself.
I did say Nephi walked in high circles if he knew about steel. But he wasn’t that high. I feel access to meteoric steel would put him interacting near Pharoah’s level. I assume you are referencing King Tut’s meteoric dagger? I do think a comprehensive review of data on steel in First Temple Period is needed on Interpreter’s site. I may not know what you are referencing.
But I am tracking even King Tut’s dagger was just iron. Nephi was low enough Laban thought he could kill him without too much hassle.
The concept of steel seems as simple as letting molten iron sit in ash (i.e. to infuse the carbon- Levene’s article confirms this was one technique in ancient Judah). But like most knowledge, it is only obvious after the spirit teaches it. The knowledge was scare, likely guarded as a state secret.
When you say steel technology has been around for over a thousand years you also give a lot of credit to humans preserving technology and disseminating it. In reality the technology appears perishable. Whatever metal made up Nephi’s bow it becomes omitted in lists of metal after Jarom. Moroni knew the word as he put it in Ether.
Leaving the land of Nephi must have been quite the decline in civilization. It appears entire trades were lost and never recovered. Nephite culture pre and post Jarom must have been different.
The majority of Babylon’s weapons were not steel. Therefore one has to wonder how Nephi was more armed than the so-called “world power” of the day.
We are probably due for a comprehensive review on steel.
Such a reappraisal could begin with the following:
Susan V. Meschel, “Metallurgy in the Bible: Ironworking and the Disposal of the Golden Calf,” Jewish Bible Quarterly, 42/4 (2014):262-269, online at https://jbqnew.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/424/jbq_424_meschelmetal.pdf .
T. Stech-Wheeler, J. D. Muhly, K. R. Maxwell-Hyslop, and R. Maddin, “Iron at Taanach and Early Iron Metallurgy in the Eastern Mediterranean,” American Journal of Archaeology, 85/3 (July 1981): 245-268, online at https://www.jstor.org/stable/504169 ,
p. 245 Abstract: “A group of iron artifacts with a terminus ante quem of ca. 925 B.C. from Taanach in Palestine was studied metallurgically in order to see if they would yield any evidence pertinent to understanding the technological background of the early Iron Age. The results suggest that by the late tenth century blacksmiths supplying northern Palestine were able to produce carburized iron (steel), which is a product superior to bronze.”
One has to bear in mind that the dividing line between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age was also the point at which Philistine domination of Israel ended — when Israelites began to make iron and steel weapons equal to those had by the Philistines. One has also to consider that steel was being made in South Arabia already in 1100 B.C. — found archeologically at Hajar bin-Humeid.
Steel is not only carbonized iron, but also various iron alloys. There is evidence that it was manganese inn in the iron ore that enhanced the strength of Spartan swords about 650 BC in early Greece. ( https://www.manganese.org/en/about-manganese )
Lehi and his sons lived in a period when Philistine sea traders, were active along the Mediterranean coast of Israel, importing various precious metals (usually in ingot form) from countries of the northern Mediterranean, including Greece. Their main harbor of Ashkelon was a manufacturing center where they fashioned the metals into finished products. If Lehi’s “inheritance” was at the place where Sampson slew a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of an ass and named the place “Lehi” (jawbone), Nephi would have grown up not far from Ashkelon. Manufacturers need distributors, and it appears that Lehi was in this business. Rather than Nephi being in “high circles” he probably learned his metallurgy skills working with his father’s business associates. He may also have taken a voyage with them where he gained knowledge of seamanship.
Excellent in-depth analysis and very plausible.
A couple of minor exceptions:
1. No need to surmise that Nephi’s broken bow was not made of “fine steel” as Nephi stated (1 Nephi 16:18). Nephi had recognized Laban’s sword in the moonlight a being made of the “most precious steel,” (1 Nephi 4:9), and he certainly knew he difference between steel and bronze. Steel is subject to metal fatigue and will break after bending back and forth as would bow.
2. Then “place of Nephi” is never referred to as the city of Nephi and should not be confused with the city of Lehi-Nephi about 400 years later, that Zeniff changed the name to the city of Nephi. ( see https://interpreterfoundation.org/blog-the-city-of-lehi-nephi-name-change-by-j-theodore-brandley/ )
BTW, The Book of Mormon never mentions the word “bronze” although Nephi mentions the word “brass” several times. In Middle English and Early Modern English, “brass” referred to any alloy of copper. The word “bronze” (French) was n not used in the metal industry until the mid 1700s (OED), so it would not be in use in America in Early Modern English.